664677, 2006. For example, R. F. Sputtering for preparing CdS window layer can be rather fast but with poor quality that reduces the cell efficiency, while CBD could provide a dense and smooth CdS layer but the solution waste recycling and management cause extra cost. Thin film CdS/CdTe has long been regarded as one promising choice for the development of cost-effective and reliable solar cells. 15, pp. M. A. Matin, M. Mannir Aliyu, A. H. Quadery, and N. Amin, Prospects of novel front and back contacts for high efficiency cadmium telluride thin film solar cells from numerical analysis, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 23, no. A distinguishing feature of being human, beyond the animals we are, is language. 648653, 2009. We do not routinely identify and analyze its causes and, thus, cannot knowingly assign the tasks of remedy and repair. WebSustainable development can be interpreted in economic terms as develop- ment that lasts (Pearce and Barbier, 2000) i.e. According to the US Department of Energy, solar energy should only be economically viable for large-scale production if the cost can be reduced to $0.33/Wp (Wp = wart peak) [8]. 0000005966 00000 n 60976075, the Suzhou Science and Technology Bureau of China under Grant SYG201007, and SIP Service industry guiding funding. This is an excellent breakthrough since it is difficult to keep high-quality single-crystal structure when moving into nanometer level, and single crystal is usually required for high-efficiency solar cells to maintain high density of e-h pairs. T. Nakada, Y. Hirabayashi, T. Tokado, D. Ohmori, and T. Mise, Novel device structure for Cu(In,Ga)Se2 thin film solar cells using transparent conducting oxide back and front contacts, Solar Energy, vol. 4, pp. %PDF-1.3 % E. Bacaksiz, B. M. Basol, M. Altunba, V. Novruzov, E. Yanmaz, and S. Nezir, Effects of substrate temperature and post-deposition anneal on properties of evaporated cadmium telluride films, Thin Solid Films, vol. 511-512, pp. N. Romeo, A. Bosio, V. Canevari, M. Terheggen, and L. Vaillant Roca, Comparison of different conducting oxides as substrates for CdS/CdTe thin film solar cells, Thin Solid Films, vol. 13881391, 2007. 1.1 Our unsustainability and major threats. 9, pp. Advanced Engineering Materials and Composites Research Centre (AEMC), Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia; Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Melaka, Malaysia. 97, no. Webplanning and architecture; the idea of sustainability is not new. Since CuxTe exhibits p-type characteristics, a large amount of holes appear in CuxTe, and this offers a good ohmic contact with CdTe layers. In many cases, the problems can be narrowly defined and those institutions responsible for fixing the world are clear. CD4152:Design for Sustainability PD4153:Reverse Engineering ED4091:Advanced Finite Element Analysis CC4002:Industrial Safety Management The structure of the bilayer CdS thin-film solar cell is shown in Figure 2. K. C. Park, E. S. Cha, and B. T. Ahn, Sodium-doping of ZnTe film by close-spaced sublimation for back contact of CdTe solar cell, Current Applied Physics, vol. I. M. Dharmadasa, Latest developments in CdTe, CuInGaSe2 and GaAs/AlGaAs thin film PV solar cells, Current Applied Physics, vol. This is an open access article distributed under the, http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pdfs/solar_program_mypp_2008-2012.pdf, http://investor.firstsolar.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=593994, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2011/07/4-5-in-loans-to-support-three-first-solar-projects, http://www.votum.cz/pdf/workshop/Neumann%20-%20Calyxo-%20Vynikajici%20vyteznost%20na%20Wp.pdf. 0000005750 00000 n Therefore, the techniques should be carefully chosen with the consideration of high quality thin-film structure (high efficiency), proper pollution control, and commercial production prospect. The controlled affinity of x 1.4 ensures cell stability without rectification [29]. As long as all share a sense that it is possible to realize this and other widely held social aspirations, life will go on routinely. Web1. In the third step, the AAM layer is partially etched by NaOH (Figure 9(c)) and a p-type CdTe film with ~1m is deposited by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). No subject can be understood well without also understanding its context. Meanwhile, high optical absorption coefficient and high chemical stability also appear in CdTe. This book will be beneficial to researchers, students in higher education institutions, design practitioners and engineers in private and public sector organization with aspirations to develop sustainable products in the future. 364368, 2003. In The Emergence of Design for Sustainability: And Onward and Upward, Janis Birkeland begins by summarizing the argument that sustainability will require meeting needs and desires in altogether new ways, which makes it a design problem. In particular, we have intentions (expressions of what we want the future to be) that guide our actions. Currently, the emerging problems related to fabrication mainly focus on (1) the short circuit of TCO and the CdTe layer caused by the partial grain covering and pinholes in CdS with extremely small thickness and (2) short minority carrier life time due to the defects inside the CdTe layer. Predictably, this focus has resulted in the enhancement of one technical system or other but not always to the benefit of people. Green design and product ecodesign . Despite the lattice mismatch of 10% between CdTe and CdS, the formed heterojunction has an excellent electrical behavior, leading to a high fill factor of 0.77 in produced solar cells [13]. S484S487, 2010. Yet, he believes that there is an answer amidst this morass. 0000085039 00000 n Hence, the reactions below are supposed to happen: The resultant CdTe solid in second chemical reaction (2b) would have larger grain size than the one in first reaction (2a) since annealing process in chlorine ambient assists the recrystallization of CdTe grains. 157, no. 0000001740 00000 n Cradle-to-cradle design . Its nucleus was a simple hemispherical brick structure built over the relics of the Buddha. You currently dont have access to this book, however you Figure is taken from [. According to a recent Greenpeace report, " Smart Design on Instagram: "Do you recycle a plastic bottle with the cap on or off? 6, pp. 0000066141 00000 n Webconsiderations, and social responsibility. Calyxo also expended their capacity up to 25MWp in 2008 and expects to finish their second production line with capacity of 110MWp in 2011 [15]. N. Romeo, A. Bosio, R. Tedeschi, A. Romeo, and V. Canevari, Highly efficient and stable CdTe/CdS thin film solar cell, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 1.2 The concept of sustainability: definitions and models. [29] provide a solution: to anneal the CdS/CdTe structure in mixture of 100500mbar of Ar and 2050mbar of nontoxic gas containing Cl2 such as difluorochloromethane (HCF2Cl) for 510 minutes at 400C. 671677, 2010. P. Liu, V. P. Singh, C. A. Jarro, and S. Rajaputra, Cadmium sulfide nanowires for the window semiconductor layer in thin film CdS-CdTe solar cells, Nanotechnology, vol. Further, we fail to stop and seek qualitatively different approaches that might work effectively. In addition, this approach also offers more flexibility, since the optical gap can be tuned by size variation of nanopillars. 431-432, pp. WebFor any queries regarding the NPTEL website, availability of courses or issues in accessing courses, please contact. 52, no. 6, pp. Part 1: Concepts and context. S. Leone, $4.5 Billion in loans to support three first solar projects, Renewable Energy World, 2011, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2011/07/4-5-in-loans-to-support-three-first-solar-projects. The basic idea is to replace conventional Cu/Au with transparent indium tin oxide (ITO) as back contact layers. 515, no. Samples have been obtained successfully by several common techniques: radio frequency sputtering (R. F. Sputtering) [18], close-spaced sublimation (CSS) [19], and chemical bath deposition (CBD) [20] for CdS preparation, while electrodeposition (ED) [21], screen printing (SP) [22], and CSS [2325] for CdTe thin-film formation. 6. 94, no. This pattern is the characteristic of addiction. An addict continues to apply the same ineffective solutions without regard to the underlying problem and without. Following a quasi-chronological pattern, our exploration provides an overview of the DfS eld, categorising Emergence from this state of affairs, and therefore from the fundamental premises of unsustainability, will represent a major shift in understandings, priorities, values and lifestyles. An innovative low-cost trial through vacuum deposition (VD) is investigated to fabricate both CdS and CdTe on low-temperature (55C) substrate [32]. W. P. Hirshman, Surprise, surprise (cell production 2009: survey), Photon International, pp. 70047007, 2008. In other writings, I have given sustainability an explicit meaning through reference to a bundle of aspirations I lump together in the metaphor of flourishing (Ehrenfeld, 2008, p. 49). 60996102, 2007. DfS is comprised of three components: Development, Consulting, and Re-engineering. 176199, 2010. Conventionally, an etching with nitric-phosphoric (NP) acid is applied to obtain Te-rich layers on the top of CdTe before copper deposition [11], so that a diffusion layer of CuxTe alloy can be formed during the annealing after Cu deposition. WebSustainability management refers to approaches dealing with social, environmental, and eco-nomic issues in an integrated manner to transform organizations in a way that they contribute to the sustainable development of the economy and society, within the limits of the ecosystem (e.g., Schaltegger & Burritt, 2005; Whiteman, Walker, & Perego, 2013). 12, no. As long as efforts designed to create sustainability arise within the current way of thinking and actionthe normal modern societal paradigmthe best we can hope for is some reduction in unsustainability. In this technology, the first CdS layer is made by standard CBD process with reduced time (compared with standard structure shown in Figure 1), and then the second CdS layer is deposited by CBD at lower temperature (55C). Sustainability has emerged as a central issue for contemporary societies and for the world community as a whole. Copyright 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. The origin and refractoriness of unsustainability can be attributed to many causes, but two stand out as critical: the Cartesian, scientific mindset of modern cultures and the hegemony of technological and technocratic solutions to all individual and collective problems. To become effective and excellent collaborators and innovators, participating in efforts to address and provide fast and efficient solutions II. Moreover, an extremely thin Cu layer (220nm) is inserted to get a low contact resistance without varying the stability. 795801, 2004. Average transmittance in the range of 800100nm for CdTe films annealed at different temperatures with dry and wet CdCl, SEM photomicrographs of the surface of CdTe films: morphology of an untreated CdTe film deposited by the CSS method (a) before and (b) after thermal treatment in Ar+HCF, (a) Cross-sectional schematic diagram of the solar nanopillar cell. We are so accustomed to this way of problem solving that we ignore a few important pathologies that arise when routine actions become so familiar that we are blind to outcomes other than those that were intended. Furthermore, the CdS/CdTe thin-film solar cells achieve a similar or superior performance by applying ED-CdS instead of CBD-CdS, because the crystal structure is hexagonal for former and cubic for latter. 803814, 2004. WebChapter V. Environmental sustainability 115 Protecting the atmosphere to combat climate change1 A growing concern about the unsustainable use of natural resources as a result of Introduction. HCF2Cl is stable, inert, and nontoxic at room temperature, and it would be decomposed as Cl2 and other products during annealing. 4, p. 44, 1982. Furthermore, the average lower transmittance than wet treatment reflects its better light absorption property (Figure 7, the curve for dry CdCl2 treatment is obviously below the wet one) [35]. In this way, the solar cells can be illuminated from both sides, and, more importantly, the long-term stability can be improved due to the absence of bulk Cu layer [20]. T. Kietzke, Recent advances in organic solar cells, Advances in OptoElectronics, vol. Among various means for generating energy from the sun, solar cells are an effective approach to convert solar energy into practical electrical energy. 22, no. The paper is structured as follows. Now expand this scenario to a much larger worldthe United States or the European Unionand to a set of aspirations shared by all its citizensfor example, sharing the national dream, usually including freedom and wellbeing. All are based on some manifestation of reductionism: cutting up the problem and its enveloping system into pieces, and parceling the job to fix things to experts working in the resultant associated, isolated areas. 14, pp. 121132, 1992. Hb```f``ad`e``bd@ AqmQV+F6l,[$hVN}BS.ps. Fortunately, several modifications to conventional methods and new techniques have been explored to improve the problems above these years [2636]. 0000007551 00000 n 247279, 2006. H647H651, 2010. 90, no. A ~2m AAM with near-perfect ordering after anodization is built on Al substrate (Figure 9(b)), followed by a barrier thinning process to branch out the pore channels and reduce the AAM film to a few nanometers. 8. 95, no. The dense and smooth CdS thin films could generate isolation between TCO and CdTe layers, which could solve the shunt problem between these two layers. Albert Borgmann leads the readers on this reflective journey in I Miss the Hungry Years: Coping with Abundance. 9, pp. 0000071511 00000 n A. Romeo, G. Khrypunov, S. Galassini, H. Zogg, and A. N. Tiwari, Bifacial configurations for CdTe solar cells, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. A. N. Tiwari, G. Khrypunov, F. Kurdzesau, D. L. Btzner, A. Romeo, and H. Zogg, CdTe solar cell in a novel configuration, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, vol. He advocates for an alternative direction in design, one in which design becomes the ineradicable human knack of widening the field of possibility. 62, no. Based on the previous analysis, we still believe that CdS/CdTe solar cell will be a crucial candidate for global low-cost solar cells market in future. Web3. Flourishing gathers a bundle of qualities that have been at the center of human aspirations from time immemorialthe good life, health, solidarity, autonomy, freedom, dignity, and more. 9951000, 2001. Davison posits the view that the moral values of the pastvalues underpinned by a determinist technological optimism, to use his wordsare directly responsible for the unsustainable conditions of today. Unsustainability, a general set of concerns that the future will not satisfy our aspirations, is just such a problem. Furthermore, it is also suggested that 3D nanopillar array can also improve the light absorption while enhancing the carrier collection efficiency [40]. J. Due to the high electron affinity of p-type CdTe, the Fermi level pinning would be formed between the absorption layer and the metal layer. 1.3 A timeline: design and the sustainability movement. Although there is no impressive progress for efficiency improvement these years, those techniques above offer some novel ideas for further development. Alternatively, some metals, such as Ni, Al, Mo, and W, can be employed to extend cell lifetime. 8, pp. The equivalent circuit of bifacial cells is now modeled as two opposite illuminated diodes representing main separating barrier and the barrier near the back contact, respectively [45]. Addressing sustainability by design . Z. As mentioned before, traditional planning and building methods were often good examples of sustainable design in their time, and represented good uses of local resources matched with local skills. He does so by first examining theories that previously found favour with many disciplines, especially those theories grounded in the empirical world of the sciences. As the performance of the solar cell is closely related to the quality of the interface between CdS and CdTe, the similar grain size does favor to good intermixture of these two materials and could dramatically decrease the defects inside interface. Chapter summary. 12, no. This paper has summarized the latest research and techniques to solve the efficiency problem in CdS/CdTe solar cells from aspects of fabrication, structure, and back contact materials. Web1. A reverse-biased potential would be formed at the CdTe-metal interface to limit the holes transport and would seriously reduce the cells efficiency. She provides a capsule history of two competing paradigms in design for sustainable development: green and technocratic. Despite some forty years of development and increased awareness of the critical relationships that exist between design decisions and modes of production, energy use, environmental impacts, the nature of work and human exploitation, design for sustainability is still not widely understood or followed. Henrik Sorensen/Getty Images. 0000001718 00000 n 18, no. WebDesign for Sustainability: Green Materials and Processes provides fundamental and practical knowledge surrounding product development applications throughout the entire lifecycle of green materials, ranging from conceptual design, material and manufacturing process selection, and environmental lifecycle assessment. 13, pp. The favorable formation enthalpy and good chemical stability of CdS/CdTe heterojunction have allowed many routes to be explored in novel device architectures. Apply design considerations for assembled systems. 0000039738 00000 n 14961500, 2010. Fan, and A. Javey, Design constraints and guidelines for CdS/CdTe nanopillar based photovoltaics, Applied Physics Letters, vol. All of them make CdTe a very attractive material for thin-film solar cells. Designing Your Companys Sustainability Report. Then smaller grain size would be obtained since the bilayer structure could provide the compact and uniform CdS layers without pinholes and cracks among grain boundaries. Many kinds of solar cells based on Si [3], thin film [4, 5], or even organic materials [6, 7] are gradually developed these years. Nanostructured geometries are believed to be the most promising method to achieve high efficiency and low cost from structural aspect [37, 38]. More of the same technology in a world that has become machine-likeno matter how effective the technology may bewill not reverse our present unsustainable course. 6, pp. The merits of this method are that it provides an effective way of producing high-quality CdTe layers with large grains and few defects (Figures 8(a) and 8(b)) to obtain less possibility of electron-hole recombination. Hence, Davison, Ehrenfeld and Mathews share the view that design offers an important, positive and practical way forward for realizing sustainability. If further reducing the thickness of CdTe layers in bifacial configuration, tandem cells can be built to increase the efficiency by absorbing a broader part of solar spectrum, though intensive researches are still required to make it into practice [45, 46]. More efficient automobiles may slow down the rate of global warming, but the capability to reduce pollution will become questionable at some time in the future. The work of the German philosopher Alfred Schutz sought to understand action and its connection to consciousness and knowledge. Instead of summarizing the history, this paper aims to review the progress of CdS/CdTe photovoltaics by evaluating some current techniques to deal with first three challenges above from three aspects: fabrication technology, structural design, and choice of back contact, respectively. in this kind of structure [37], and it is expected to reach >20% after further optimization [38]. However, these are still much lower than the theoretical value. Instead, a new etching technique employing nitric-acetic (NA) acid can be applied to avoid roll over phenomenon in J-V curve (Figure 10) and generate better ohmic contact with lower series resistance (4.3cm2) than that of NP acid etching method (6.5cm2) as well as higher fill factor [47]. The second approach to improve efficiency is to modify the configuration of CdS/CdTe solar cells. 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